1.
Additive: A substance added to something
in small quantities typically to improve or preserve it.[1]
2.
Adoption: The “decision to make full use
of an innovation as the best course of action available.” The decision to adopt
or reject an innovation is the “decision” stage of the “innovation-decision
process,” which is the “process through which an individual (or other
decision-making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation, to the
formation of an attitude toward the innovation, to a decision to adopt or
reject, to implementation and the use of a new idea, and to confirmative of
this decision.” [16]
3.
Benefit-cost analysis: The application
of discounted cashflow analysis to measure the benefits and costs generated by
an investment [44]
4. Biobased: Commercial or industrial
products (other than food or feed) that are composed in whole or in significant
part of biological products or renewable domestic agricultural materials
(including plant, animal, and marine materials) or forestry materials. [56]
5. Biobased Plastics: High polymeric
materials obtained through chemical or biological synthesis from raw materials.
Some share of the carbon atoms in biobased plastics are derived from renewable feedstocks (a term defined below) and
some fossil-fuel-based carbon. The percentage of biobased ingredients and the conditions under which the biobased
product may biodegrade, if at all, vary widely. (compare to bioplastic, below) [51]
6. Biodegradable: Capable of being
broken down via microbial activity, as opposed to degradable, which refers to
materials that can be broken down by abiotic factors such as heat, UV light, or
mechanical stress. Complete biodegradation (i.e., mineralization) refers to the
oxidation of the parent compound (an organic molecule) to carbon dioxide and
water. Biodegradation provides both carbon and energy for the growth and
reproduction of cells. [32]
7. Biodegradable mulch (other): Whole
plant, plant debris, or plant product such as cover crops, straw, tree bark,
wood chips, or paper, that is used for weed control and moisture conservation.
Often tends to reduce soil temperatures. Will biodegrade in the soil due to
microbial activity. [35] [5]
8. Biodegradable plastic: Degradable
plastic in which the degradation results from the action of naturally occurring
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae. [47]
9. Biodegradable plastic mulch: Manufactured
alternative to plastic mulch. Ideally, biodegradable mulch provides the same
benefits as plastic mulch (weed control, soil temperature moderation, reduced
soil-borne pathogens, soil moisture retention, and soil conservation) and
provides the added benefit of being 100% biodegradable, either in the field,
soil or in composting, with no formation of toxic residues. [27]
10. Biodegradability Standardized Test,
Ambient Soil Conditions (ASTM D5988-3): Standard test method for determining
aerobic biodegradation in soil of plastic materials or residual plastic
materials after composting. [9]
Requires the following:
·
Requires
selection of a common microbe and soil type; soil water activity, pH, etc.,
controlled.
·
Operated
via a dessicator.
·
Biodegradation
assessed by comparison to a positive control.
·
CO2
measured via reaction with Ba(OH)2, yielding BaCO3; reactant Ba(OH)2
concentration determined via titration.
·
Biodegradation
can also be monitored through BOD (biological oxygen demand).[48]
11. Biodegradability Standardized Test,
Industrial Composting Conditions (ASTM D5338-98) [9]: Standard test method for
determining aerobic biodegradation of plastic materials under controlled
composting conditions that are similar to D5988, except:
·
A
specified compositing apparatus is required.
·
2-L
reactors with aerators.
·
A
robust means of measuring CO2, such as IR, should be considered.
·
Positive
and negative controls are used. [49]
12. Biofumigation: Elimination or
suppression of plant pathogens, nematodes or weeds in the soil by amendment
with biological products, particularly Brassica plants or seed meals. These
produce isothiocyanates as they break down, and appear to directly suppress
some pests. They may also act indirectly on the pests by favoring the growth of
organisms antagonistic to the pathogens. [29]
13. Biomass: The total mass of all
organisms in a given population or geographical area;usually expressed as total
dry weight.Biological material derived from living, or recently living
organisms. In the context of biomass for energy this is often used to mean
plant based material, but biomass can equally apply to both animal and
vegetable derived material. [57]
14. Bioplastics: Plastics in which all
of its carbon atoms are derived from renewable feedstocks (a term defined
below). They may or may not be biodegradable. (See also biobased plastic) [51]
15. Biopolymers: A polymeric substance
(as a protein or polysaccharide) formed in a biological system. [14]
16. Carbon Black (dyeing agent): Any of
various colloidal black substances consisting wholly or principally of carbon
obtained usually as soot and used especially in tires and as pigments. [8]
17. Carbon
pool: Amount of organic and inorganic carbon in a controlled volume of soil.
[59]
18. Clean technology: A means of
rendering goods or services that exhibit similar or better level of
functionality, measurably superior environmental performance, at comparable
long-run economic costs as that of those goods/services rendered by
conventional technology. [12]
19. Compostability (of Plastics)
Standard (ASTM D6400) : Standard specification for compostable plastics:
- For “...plastics that are designed
to be composted in municipal and industrial aerobic composting facilities”
- For “establish the requirements for
labeling ...as “compostable in municipal and industrial composting
facilities”
- Degradable plastic: “...designed to undergo a significant
change in its chemical structure under specific environmental conditions,
resulting in a loss of some properties that may be measured by standard
test methods”
- BD Plastic: “a degradable plastic
in which the degradation results from the action of naturally occurring
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae.”
- Requirement 1: Loss of 90% dry mass
of plastic under composting during 12 weeks (ASTM D5338 [9] standardized biodegradability test)[14]
- Requirement 2: (“inherent
biodegradation”) 60% of C atoms converted to CO2 in 180 days (compared to
control) for single polymers (for blends, 60 or 90% conversion in 12 weeks,
depending on the nature of the blend). [46]
20. Compostable plastic: A plastic that
undergoes degradation by biological processes during composting to yield carbon
dioxide, water, inorganic compounds, and biomass at a rate consistent with
other known compostable materials, and leaves no visible, distinguishable, or
toxic residue. [47]
21. Composting (agricultural sense): The
process ‘to compost’ is the biological decomposition of organic materials by
microorganisms under controlled, aerobic conditions to produce a relatively
stable humus-like material called ‘compost’. For agricultural operations the
common materials or feedstocks that are composted are livestock manures,
livestock bedding, and various residual plant materials (straw, culls, on-farm
processing wastes, etc.). Composting is much more than just allowing manure to
pile up and decompose until ready for use—it is a science. The decomposition
occurs in a well-managed process to obtain specific positive results–a valuable
product–with a minimum of negative environmental impacts. [26]
22. Composting (materials sense): A
managed process that controls the biological decomposition and transformation
of biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost: the
aerobic mesophilic and thermophilic degradation of organic matter to make
compost; the transformation of biologically decomposable material through a
controlled process of bio-oxidation that proceed through mesophilic and
thermophilic phases and results in the production of carbon dioxide, water,
minerals, and stabilized organic matter. (compost or humus). [47]
23. Crop covers: Also called row covers.
Flexible, transparent or semi-transparent materials used to cover and protect
crops from cold, wind, and insect damage. Two main types of material
commercially used are polyethylene (clear) and porous, floating, nonwoven
polyester or polypropylene. Examples of trademark manufacturers include Reemay,
DuPont, Kenbar, Polymax, Starfoam. [25]
24. Cover
crop: A densely planted, natural or introduced crop grown primarily to improve
and maintain soil structure, add organic matter, and prevent soil erosion. [45]
25. Cucurbit: A plant of the gourd
family (Cucurbitaceae), which
includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and cucumber. [13]
26. Degrade: Measurable conversion or
mineralization of C to CO2. Different than‘deterioration’
– see definition below. [24]
27. Degradable plastic: Plastic designed
to undergo a significant change in its chemical structure under specific
environmental conditions, resulting in a loss of some properties that may be
measured by standard test methods. [47]
28. Degradable polymeric material (or
“plastic”): “designed to undergo a significant change in its chemical structure
under specific environmental conditions resulting in a loss of some properties
that may vary as measured by standard test methods appropriate to the polymeric
material and the application in a period of time that determines its
classification.” [35] Degradation:A deleterious change in the chemical
structure, physical properties, or appearance of a plastic. [47]
29. Deterioration: Loss of physical or
mechanical strength, as observed through physical strength testing, microscopic
imaging, or sizable macroscopic alteration of morphology (e.g. rips, tears, and
holes assessed visually). Different than ‘degradation’
– see definition above. [24]
30. Earthworm
standardized test: Experimental quantification of number of earthworms per soil
surface area. Earthworms are extracted by a solution of mustard. [59]
31. ‘End’ products: Final output of an
activity, arrangement, or process. Articles, materials, and supplies delivered
(or are to be delivered) under a contract. [9]
32. Enterprise Budget: A written goal
statement for a crop or livestock production activity; listing the production
goal, management activities, resource requirements, and economic returns. An
enterprise budget contains the following elements or sections:
•
production
goal,
•
expected
market price and gross receipts,
•
planned
management activities with required resource inputs and costs, and
•
estimated
net return and break-even price (BEP) for the goal production. [42]
33. Environmental burden: The total set
of resources used, emissions and residues during the life cycle of a product or
an item. Total impact on the environment of a construction product or project. [34]
34. Extrusion: A process by which a
heated polymer is forced through an orifice to form a molten stream that is
cooled to form a filament or fiber. A solution of the polymer can also be
forced through the orifice into a solvent that causes the fiber to solidify. [10]
35. Extruder: An apparatus for
extrusion. [10]
36. Fabric: A sheet structure made from
fibers, filaments or yarns. [10]
37. Feedstock:
Raw material to supply or fuel a machine or industrial process. [17]
38. Floating row covers: Floating row
covers are made of spun-bonded polyester and spun- bonded polypropylene and are
so lightweight that they "float" over most crops without support.
(Crops with tender, exposed growing points, such as tomatoes and peppers, are
exceptions; to prevent damage from wind abrasion, the cover should be supported
with wire hoops.) The spun-bonded fabric is permeable to sunlight, water, and
air, and provides a microclimate similar to the interior of a greenhouse.
Plants are protected from drying winds by what amounts to a horizontal
windbreak, and the covers give 2 to 8°F (1-4 oC) of frost protection.
In addition to season extension, advantages include greater
yields,higher-quality produce, and exclusion of insect pests. [3]
39. Fumigant:
Vapor-active (volatile) pesticide or material used to kill disease-causing
organisms, insects, nematodes, weeds, and other pests; a gaseous or readily
volatilizable disinfectant or disinfectant used to destroy organisms by vapor
action in an enclosed area or under plastic laid on the soil. Fumigants may be
volatile liquids and solids as well as substances already gaseous. [45]
40. Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs): An organism whose genome has been altered through genetic engineering
to favor the expression of desired physiological traits or the output of
desired biological products. [6]
41. Green chemistry: Green chemistry,
also known as sustainable chemistry, is the design of chemical products and
processes that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous
substances. Green chemistry applies across the life cycle of a chemical
product, including its design, manufacture, and use. [4]
42. Impact: The social, economic, civic,
and/or environmental consequences of an educational program. Impacts tend to be
longer-term and so may be equated with goals. Impacts may be positive,
negative, and/or neutral and intended or unintended. [52]
43. Innovation: “An idea, practice, or
object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. It
matters little, so far as human behavior is concerned, whether or not an idea
is ‘objectively’ new as measured by the lapse of time since its first use or
discovery. The perceived newness of the idea for the individual determines his
or her reaction to it. If an idea seems new to the individual, it is an
innovation.” [16]
44. Interdisciplinary Research: Any
study or group of studies undertaken by scholars from two or more distinct
scientific disciplines. The research is based upon a conceptual model that
links or integrates theoretical frameworks from those disciplines, uses study
design and methodology that is not limited to any one field, and requires the
use of perspectives and skills of the involved disciplines throughout multiple
phases of the research process. [21]
45. Landscape
fabric: A textile material used to control weeds by inhibiting their exposure
to sunlight. The fabric is normally placed around desirable plants, covering
areas where other growth is unwanted. The fabric itself can be made from
synthetic or organic materials, sometimes from recycled sources. [30]
46. Leaching
(carbon leaching): Transfer of material (carbon) through action of water
movement out of a controlled volume of soil. [31]
47. Life cycle assessment: The
method/process for evaluating the effects that a product has on the environment
over the entire period of its life from ‘cradle to grave’, thereby increasing
resource use efficiency and decreasing liabilities. [43]
48. Lysimeter:
An instrument to collect water percolating (leaching) through the soil. [31]
49. Lysimetry:
The method associated with using a lysimeter. [31]
50. Meltblown: A nonwoven web forming
process that extrudes and draws molten polymer resins with heated, high
velocity air to form fine filaments. The filaments are cooled and collected as
a web onto a moving screen. [10]
51. Mineralization: Microbial conversion
of organic matter into inorganic substances, such as water and carbon dioxide. [19]
52. Mulch: (verb) Application of a
covering (bulk, film or fabric) to the soil surface of a row of plants. (noun)
Any product so applied. Common mulches include straw, sawdust and polyethylene
film. Mulches are most commonly used to control weeds, but can also modify soil
temperature and can reduce water loss due to evaporation from the soil surface.
Film mulches are commonly used in solarization, fumigation and biofumigation. [35]
53. Nonwoven fabric: A fabric made directly
from a web of fiber, without the yarn preparation necessary for weaving and
knitting. In a nonwoven, the assembly of textile fibers is held together 1) by
mechanical interlocking in a random web or mat; 2) by fusing of the fibers, as
in the case of thermoplastic fibers; or 3) by bonding with acementing medium
such as starch, casein, rubber latex, a cellulose derivative or synthetic
resin. Initially, the fibers may be oriented in one direction or may be
deposited in a random manner. This web or sheet is then bonded together by one
of the methods described above. Fiber lengths can range from 0.25 inch to 6
inches for crimped fibers up to continuous filament in spunbonded fabrics.
Nonwoven fabrics are currently used as weed mats, and row covers. [10]
54. Organic agriculture: According to
the USDA National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), organic agriculture is
defined as "an ecological production management system that promotes and
enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It is
based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that
restore, maintain, or enhance ecological harmony. [23]
55. Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI): Provides third party, independent review of products intended
for use in certified organic production, handling, and processing. Also
provides technical support and training for professionals in the organic
industry. A 501(c)3 nonprofit organization founded in 1997. When companies
apply, OMRI reviews their products against the organic standards. Acceptable
products are OMRI Listed® and appear on the OMRI Products List© or OMRI
Canada Products List©. [36]
56. Organic standards: A federal program
managed by USDA, the National Organic Program (NOP) has standards which
producers must meet in order to be certified as organic. Standards include
inputs and techniques that are allowable and not allowable. An overview of
being certified organic includes: avoidance of prohibited synthetic chemical
inputs (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, food additives, etc),
genetically modified organisms, irradiation, and the use of sewage sludge; use
of farmland that has been free from chemicals for three or more years; keeping
detailed written production and sales records (audit trail); maintaining strict
physical separation of organic products from non- certified products; and
undergoing periodic on-site inspections. [2]
57. Outcomes: Results or changes that
occur from an educational effort. Outcomes may relate to changes in knowledge,
awareness, skills, attitudes, opinions, aspirations, motivation, behavior,
practice, decision-making, policies, social action, condition or status.
Outcomes may be intended and unintended; positive and negative. Outcomes fall
along a continuum from immediate (initial; short-term) to intermediate
(medium-term) to final outcomes (long-term), often synonymous with impacts. [52]
58. Paper mulch: Products vary from
32-40-pound kraft paper, may be dyed black, unbleached, or undyed 100% recycled
kraft paper. Papers may be treated with natural substances such as vegetable
oil (soybean) and elemental sulfur. The product comes on rolls, generally 36 –
48 inches wide and up to 1500 feet long. Primarily used for weed control, soil
moisture conservation, and soil erosion control. Tends to reduce soil
temperature and is short lasting (3-4 months). Offers many of the advantages of
plastic mulches, but does not require disposal as it is biodegradable and can
be tilled into the soil after harvest. Trade name products include ‘Planters
Paper’ and ‘Weed Guard’. [34]
59. Passive solar: Using sunlight for
useful energy without use of active mechanical systems. Such technologies
convert sunlight into usable heat (water, air, thermal mass), cause
air-movement for ventilating, or store heat for future use, with little use of
otherenergy sources. Passive solar systems have little to no operating costs,
often have low maintenance costs, and emit no greenhouse gases in operation. [37]
60. PET: Polyethylene terephthalate
(sometimes written poly(ethylene terephthalate)), is a thermoplastic polymer
resin of the polyester family (derived from petroleum feedstock DGH) and is
used in synthetic fibers; beverage, food and other liquid containers;
thermoforming applications; and engineering resins often in combination with
glass fiber. It is one of the most important raw materials used in man-made
fibers. [39]
61. Plastic film: A thin sheet of
plastic material, sometimes transparent, used to wrap or cover things. [41]
62. Plastic mulch: A thin plastic sheet
usually 0.6 – 1.5 mm in thickness, available as 36 –52 inches wide rolls, up to
6000 feet long and used to cover the soil in a bed or row primarily for weed
control. Often used in conjunction with drip irrigation and crops grow through
slits or holes in the plastic sheet. Impacts soil temperatures and conserves
moisture from irrigation; available in various colors and weights. Disposal of
the plastic mulch after use is an issue in most areas where it is used. [34]
63. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): Fatty
acid biopolymers that are biosynthesized by microbial polyhydroxyalkanoate
synthase enzymes. They are being investigated for use as biodegradable
polyesters. [7]
64. Polylactic acid (PLA): A type of
plastic, specifically a thermoplastic polyester. PLA is a more general
classification that includes PLLA [poly(L-lactic acid)] , PDLA [poly(D-lactic
acid)] , and PDLLA [poly(D,L-lactic acid) where polymers contain mixtures of D-
and L- monomeric units). The differentiation is related to chiral carbon that
occurs in lactic acid monomeric unit. (Its “building block” consists of
OOC-CH(OH)CH3.) Lactic acid produced by most organisms is primarily in the
L-enantiomeric form. PLA is used in building models and prototypes of solid
objects and components (such as in 3-D printing) and as an additive in
manufacturing processes and applications. [38]
65. Polymer:
A substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or entirely of a
large number of similar units bonded together, e.g., many synthetic organic materials used as plastics and resins.
[40]
66. Powdery mildew: Fungus (or disease)
that forms a superficial white coating on the surface of leaves, stems, fruits,
buds, and flowers; generally refers to members of the Erysiphales or a type of disease caused by these fungi. Powdery
mildew diseases are generally favored by high humidity rather than free
moisture. [34]
67. Radiocarbon
analysis (13C, 14C): Quantitative analysis of the amounts of 13C or 14C in
sample. The amount of 13C or 14C is usually expressed in relation to the amount
of 12C. [11]
68. Recycling: A resource recovery
method involving the collection and treatment of waste products for use as raw
material in the manufacture of same or similar product. [53]
69. Renewable materials: Renewable raw
materials comprise the totality of plant, animal and microbial biomass,
including biomass delivered through food chains, whose primary production is
based on photosynthesis and which are provided for material and energy uses of
all kinds outside food and feed. With material use, the biomass serves as raw
material for the (industrial) production of all types of goods. [15]
70. Renewable resources: Resources
capable of being continuously renewed or replaced through such processes as
organic reproduction and cultivation such as those practiced in agriculture,
animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries. [15]
71. Risk:
The quantifiable uncertainty that could lead to changes in an individual’s
welfare such as losing money, potential harm to human health, and events that
affect availability of resources, among others. In general agriculture risk
typically is correlated with the chance of a negative outcome (e.g., financial
loss or yield decrease) and the uncertainty in the decision making process due
to incomplete information such as market prices. [20]
72. Risk
Management: The evaluation of risk sources together with the identification of
strategies to avoid or minimize their impact; the systematic application of
management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of identifying,
analyzing, assessing treating and monitoring risk. [20] [22].
73. Row covers: See cropcovers. Flexible, translucent coverings made from polyester or
polypropylene that are installed over single or multiple rows of horticultural
crops in the field or high tunnel for the purpose of enhancing plant growth by
warming the air around the plants, or to protect plants from insect pests (light
weight row covers referred to as insect barrier). Floating row covers lie
directly over the crops; several rows or a small field may be covered by one
unit. [25]
74. Sclerotiniaslcerotiorum: A fungus that causes white mold on
plant stems and crowns on a wide variety of hosts, especially vegetables, and
can survive in the soil for many yearsin overwintering structures called
sclerotia. [34]
75. Smart materials: Materials that have
one or more properties that can be significantly changed in a controlled
fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature, moisture, pH,
electric or magnetic fields. [45]
76. Soil
carbon: Sum of organic and inorganic carbon in soil. [59]
77. Soil
Fumigation – The application of a fumigant, generally applied to soil under
plastic, for the purpose of disinfesting the area. [modified from 45].
78. Soil
organic carbon: Sum of all organic forms of carbon in the soil. [59]
79. Soil
quality: The
capacity of a soil to function. Soil quality can assessed by measuring a set of
soil properties to evaluate the soil’s ability to perform basic functions
(i.e., maintaining productivity, regulating and partitioning of water and
solute flow, filtering and buffering against pollutants, and storing and cycling
nutrients). [59]
80. Soil
respiration: Respiration by organisms in the soil. Soil respiration is an
indicator of biological activity (i.e., microbial and root), or soil life. This
activity is as important to the soil ecosystem as healthy lungs are to us. [59]
81. Solarization: Elimination or
suppression of plant pathogens, nematodes or weeds in the soil by solar
heating. The soil is brought up to a moist, workable condition (typically about
70% of field capacity) and is worked to a fine texture. Clear film is laid
tightly over the soil, and remains in place for several weeks to several
months. The practice is most effective under hot, sunny conditions. [28]
82. Specialty crops: Fruits and
vegetables, tree nuts, dried fruits, and horticulture and nursery crops including
floriculture. [55]
83. Spunbond(ed): The filaments have
been extruded, drawn and laid on a moving screen to form a web. The term is
often interchanged with “spunlaid,” but the industry conventionally adopted the
spunbond or spunbonded term to denote a specific web forming process. This is
to differentiate this web forming process from the other two forms of the
spunlaid web forming, which are melt blown and flashspinning. [10]
84. Supply
chain: A network of organizations involved in the supply and distribution of
products, services, finances, and/or information from a source to a final user
(e.g., consumer). Entire network of entities, directly or indirectly
interlinked and interdependent in serving the same consumer or customer;
including vendors that supply raw material, producers who convert the material
into products, warehouses that store, distribution centers that deliver to the
retailers, and retailers who bring the product to the ultimate user. [33] [50]
85. Sustainable agriculture: An
integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a
site-specific application that will over the long-term satisfy human food and
fiber needs, enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon
which the agriculture economy depends, make the most efficient use of
nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate,
natural biological cycles and controls, sustain the economic viability of farm
operations, and enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
[54]
86. Sustainable development: To meet the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. [58]
87. Sustainable material: Materials from
renewable sources that can be produced at high volumes without adversely
affecting the environment or critical ecologies. [46]
88. Synthetic material: (As per U.S.
Organic Agriculture certification) “a substance that is formulated or
manufactured by a chemical process or by a process that chemically changes a
substance extracted from a naturally occurring plant, animal, or mineral
sources, except that such term shall not apply to substances created by
naturally occurring biological processes.” [2]
89. Transdisciplinary research: Research
efforts conducted by investigators from different disciplines working jointly
to create new conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and translational
innovations that integrate and move beyond discipline-specific approaches to
address a common problem. Transdisciplinary research also engages stakeholders
in the conception, implementation, and evaluation of the research. [21]
90. USDA National Organic Program (NOP): Responsible for regulations and guidance on certification,
production, handling, and labeling to ensure the integrity of USDA organic
products in the U.S. and throughout the world. Organic is a labeling term that
indicates that the food or other agricultural product has been produced through
approved methods that integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices
that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve
biodiversity. Synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, irradiation, and genetic
engineering may not be used. [60]